Saccharin – an exclusive overview of 6 different variants of this sweetener (October 2024)

Table of contents

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What is saccharin?

Saccharin is an artificial sweetener that is often used in food and beverages, as well as in the pharmaceutical and cosmetics industries, mostly to replace sugar. It is one of the oldest sweeteners on the market. Depending on the variant (see below), its sweetening power is several hundred times that of sugar, making it ideal for calorie-reduced products.
It is available in various forms, including saccharinic acid, saccharin sodium (with varying water content) and calcium saccharin (see below for details).
Saccharin - AI generated by ChatGPT
 


Properties and differences between different types of saccharin

Six types of saccharin are compared below and their respective properties are listed. Unfortunately, not all of these types are currently available from us – but we are working on it.

Die Varianten haben folgende Eigenschaften:

1. Saccharic acid (Saccharine or Benzoic Sulfimide)

  • CAS No.:
    		•        81-07-2
  • EINECS:
    		•        201-321-0
  • E-number:
    		•        E 954
  • IUPAC Name:
    		•        1,2-Benzisothiazol-3(2H)-on-1,1-dioxid
  • Synonyms: 1,2-Benzisothiazol-3-on-1,1-dioxid; o-Benzoesäuresulfimid;
  • Properties: Saccharin is a synthetic, calorie-free sweetener.
  • Appearance: Pure saccharin is a white, crystalline solid that is odorless. In its pure form, it is usually available as a crystalline powder or fine granules.
  • Solubility: Slightly soluble in water (4300mg/L, @ 25 °C), but soluble in organic solvents such as ethanol.
  • Sweetening power:
    		•        According to literature about 300-700 times sweeter than sugar. According to our manufacturer, it is 550 times.
  • Purpose of use: Saccharic acid is rarely used as such, but mainly for the production of salts such as sodium saccharin and calcium saccharin, which are more soluble in water. However, we also have customers who like to use this sweetener.
  • Structure: This is the pure, non-neutralized form of saccharic acid. It consists of a heterocyclic ring system with a sulfonamide group and a keto group.
  • Pictures of the formula:
    • Saccharinsäure (auch Saccharin oder Benzoic Sulfimid) [CAS 81-07-2] Saccharinsäure (auch Saccharin oder Benzoic Sulfimid) [CAS 81-07-2] Saccharinsäure (auch Saccharin oder Benzoic Sulfimid) [CAS 81-07-2]
  • Molecular formula:
    		•        C7H5NO3S
  • Molecular weight:
    		•        183.18 g/mol
  • Melting point:
    		•        228.8-229.7 °C
  • Density:
    		•        0.828 g/cm³
  • InChI:
    		•        1/C7H5NO3S/c9-7-5-3-1-2-4-6(5)12(10,11)8-7/h1-4H,(H,8,9)
  • InChIKey:
    		•        CVHZOJJKTDOEJC-UHFFFAOYSA-N
  • SMILES:
    		•        O=S1(=O)C=2C(C(=O)N1)=CC=CC2
  • Canonical SMILES:
    		•        O=C1NS(=O)(=O)C=2C=CC=CC12
  • HS/CN Code:
    		•        29251100
    Further details on our articles for the product Saccharin acid [CAS 81-07-2].

2. Sodium Saccharin anhydrous

  • CAS No.:
    		•        128-44-9
  • EINECS:
    		•        204-886-1
  • E-number:
    		•        E 954
  • CAS Name:
    		•        Sodium saccharin unhydrous
  • IUPAC Name:
    		•        Natrium-1,2-benzothiazol-3-olat-1,1-dioxid
  • Synonyms: 1,2-Benzisothiazol-3(2H)-one, 1,1-dioxide, sodium salt (1:1)
  • Appearance: white, crystalline powder or granules
  • Solubility: Very soluble in water (1 g dissolves in approx. 1.2 ml water).
  • Purpose of use: Sodium saccharin is used as a sweetener in foods and beverages, often in dietary products, medicines and toothpaste. It is heatresistant and therefore ideal for baking or cooking.
    However, the anhydrous variant is not usually sold, but is often used as a synonym for the hydrates. The dihydrate is very common in practice.
  • Sweetening power: 300-500 times sweeter than sugar, depending on the concentration. For us, the standard value is 450 times.
  • Pictures of the formula:
    • Natriumsaccharin wasserfrei; Sodium saccharin unhydrous; [CAS 128-44-9] Natriumsaccharin wasserfrei; Sodium saccharin unhydrous; [CAS 128-44-9] Natriumsaccharin wasserfrei; Sodium saccharin unhydrous; [CAS 128-44-9]
  • Molecular formula:
    		•        C7H5NO3S.Na
  • Molecular weight:
    		•        183,18 g/mol
  • Melting point:
    		•        Decomposition at about 226+ °C.
  • Density:
    		•        approx. 600–800 g/L
  • InChI:
    		•        1S/C7H5NO3S.Na/c9-7-5-3-1-2-4-6(5)12(10,11)8-7;/h1-4H,(H,8,9);
  • InChIKey:
    		•        IDIPRSBHIGCTDN-UHFFFAOYSA-N
  • SMILES:
    		•        O=S1(=O)C=2C(C(=O)N1)=CC=CC2.[Na]
  • Canonical SMILES:
    		•        [Na].O=C1NS(=O)(=O)C=2C=CC=CC12
  • HS/CN Code:
    		•        29251100
    Further details on our articles for the product Saccharin [CAS 128-44-9].

3. Sodium Saccharin X-hydrate (Monohydrate)

  • CAS No.:
    		•        82385-42-0
  • EINECS:
    		•        204-886-1 (gelegentlich auch 617-325-4)
  • CAS Name:
    		•        Sodium saccharin X-hydrate
  • IUPAC Name:
    		•        1,2-Benzisothiazol-3(2H)-one, 1,1-dioxide, sodium salt, hydrate
  • Synonyms: 1,2-Benzisothiazol-3(2H)-one, 1,1-dioxide, sodium salt, hydrate (1:1:?); sodium 2,3-dihydro-1,2-benzisothiazol-3-olate 1,1-dioxide hydrate
  • Structure: This is the sodium salt of saccharic acid with one molecule of water of crystallization (monohydrate). In our case, the product has 2/3 molecule (corresponds to 6% water of crystallization).
  • Application: The monohydrate form is more soluble in water than pure saccharic acid and is often used as a sweetener in food and beverages. It is a common form of saccharin used in the food industry.
  • Advantages: It has a high sweetness, is stable under different pH values and can dissolve well in liquids.
  • Pictures of the formula:
    • Saccharin Natrium X-hydrat (Monohydrat); Sodium saccharin X-hydrate; [CAS 82385-42-0] Saccharin Natrium X-hydrat (Monohydrat); Sodium saccharin X-hydrate; [CAS 82385-42-0] Saccharin Natrium X-hydrat (Monohydrat); Sodium saccharin X-hydrate; [CAS 82385-42-0]
  • Molecular formula:
    		•        C7H5NO3S.xH2O.Na
  • Molecular weight:
    		•        223.17 g/mol (Monohydrat) bzw. 217,2 (2/3 Hydrat ~ 6% Wasser)
  • Melting point:
    		•        ca. 226 – 230 °C.
  • pH value:
    		•        6–7,5 @ 10%w/v, 20 °C
  • InChI:
    		•        1S/C7H5NO3S.Na.H2O/c9-7-5-3-1-2-4-6(5)12(10,11)8-7;;/h1-4H,(H,8,9);;1H2
  • InChIKey:
    		•        ADGODYTXWSFUEZ-UHFFFAOYSA-N
  • SMILES:
    		•        O=S1(=O)C=2C(C(=O)N1)=CC=CC2.[Na].O
  • Canonical SMILES:
    		•        [Na].O=C1NS(=O)(=O)C=2C=CC=CC12.O
  • HS/CN Code:
    		•        29251100
    Further details on our articles for the product Saccharin Sodium X-hydrate (monohydrate) [CAS 82385-42-0] – or 2/3-hydrate.

4. Sodium Saccharin Dihydrate

  • CAS No.:
    		•        6155-57-3
  • EINECS:
    		•        612-173-5
  • CAS Name:
    		•        Sodium saccharin dihydrate
  • IUPAC Name:
    		•        Sodium-3-oxo-3H-1λ4,2-benzothiazol-1-olat-1-oxidhydrat- (1:1:2)
  • Synonyms 1,2-Benzisothiazol-3(2H)-one, 1,1-dioxide, sodium salt, hydrate (1:1:2)
  • Structur: This is also the sodium salt of saccharic acid, but with two molecules of water of crystallization (dihydrate).
  • Application: It serves similar purposes to the monohydrate form, but with slightly different physical properties due to the higher water content. It can be used in the production of food, beverages and pharmaceuticals.
  • Properties: The main difference lies in the water binding, which affects the stability and storage requirements. It has similar sweetening properties to the monohydrate form.
  • Pictures of the formula:
    • Saccharin Natrium Dihydrat; Sodium saccharin dihydrate; [CAS 6155-57-3] Saccharin Natrium Dihydrat; Sodium saccharin dihydrate; [CAS 6155-57-3] Saccharin Natrium Dihydrat; Sodium saccharin dihydrate; [CAS 6155-57-3]
  • Molecular formula:
    		•        C7H5NO3S.2H2O.Na
  • Molecular weight:
    		•        241,2 (Dihydrat)
  • Melting point:
    		•        ca. 226 – 230 °C.
  • Density:
    		•        600–800 g/L
  • InChI:
    		•        1S/C7H5NO3S.Na.2H2O/c9-7-5-3-1-2-4-6(5)12(10,11)8-7;;;/h1-4H,
  • InChIKey:
    		•        UQKRDMFNUSMUCB-UHFFFAOYSA-N
  • SMILES:
    		•        O=S1(=O)C=2C(C(=O)N1)=CC=CC2.[Na].O
  • Canonical SMILES:
    		•        [Na].O=C1NS(=O)(=O)C=2C=CC=CC12.O
  • HS/CN Code:
    		•        29251100
    Further details on our articles for the product saccharin sodium dihydrate [CAS 6155-57-3].

5. Calcium saccharin

  • CAS No.:
    		•        6485-34-3
  • EINECS
    		•        229-349-9
  • CAS Name:
    		•        Calcium saccharin
  • IUPAC Name:
    		•        Calciumbis(1,2-benzothiazol-3-olat-1,1-dioxid)%B
  • Synonyms: 1,2-Benzisothiazol-3(2H)-one, 1,1-dioxide, calcium salt (2:1); 1,2-Benzisothiazolin-3-one, 1,1-dioxide, calcium salt; Calcium o-benzolsulfimide
  • Appearance: White, crystalline powder or granules.
  • Solubility: Highly soluble in water, but less soluble than the sodium salt.
    Less soluble in water than sodium saccharin, but soluble in hot water (approx. 1 g in 1.5 ml).
  • Sweetening power: About 300-500 times sweeter than sugar.
  • Application: Used as a sweetener in food, beverages and pharmaceutical products, especially when sodium is to be avoided (e.g. in low-sodium diets). Stable at high temperatures, therefore suitable for cooking and baking.
    Used in tablets and food supplements where an easily soluble source of calcium is required.
  • Pictures of the formula:
    • Calciumsaccharin; Calcium saccharin; [CAS 6485-34-3] Calciumsaccharin; Calcium saccharin; [CAS 6485-34-3] Calciumsaccharin; Calcium saccharin; [CAS 6485-34-3]
  • Molecular formula:
    		•        C14H8CaN2O6S2
  • Molecular weight:
    		•        404.431 g/mol
  • Boiling Point:
    		•        438.9 °C
  • Flash Point:
    		•        219.3 °C
  • InChI:
    		•        1S/C7H5NO3S.Ca/c9-7-5-3-1-2-4-6(5)12(10,11)8-7;/h1-4H,(H,8,9);
  • InChIKey:
    		•        GSHUZVSNIBLGMR-UHFFFAOYSA-N
  • SMILES:
    		•        O=S1(=O)C=2C(C(=O)N1)=CC=CC2.[Ca]
  • Canonical SMILES:
    		•        [Ca].O=C1NS(=O)(=O)C=2C=CC=CC12
  • HS/CN Code:
    		•        29251100
    At the moment there are no articles available for Calcium saccharin hydrate [CAS 6485-34-3].

6. Calcium saccharin hydrate

  • CAS No.:
    		•        6381-91-5
  • EINECS:
    		•        (625-316-1)
  • CAS Name:
    		•        Calcium Saccharin hydrate
  • IUPAC Name:
    		•        Calciumbis(1,2-benzothiazol-3-olat-1,1-dioxid)hydrat- (2:7)%B
  • Synonyms: saccharin hemicalcium; 1,2-Benzisothiazol-3(2H)-one, 1,1-dioxide, calcium salt, hydrate (4:2:7)
  • Appearance: White, crystalline powder.
  • Solubility: Highly soluble in water, but less soluble than the sodium salt. Less soluble in water than sodium saccharin, but soluble in hot water.
  • Sweetening power: About 300-400 times sweeter than sugar.
  • Application: Used as a sweetener in food, beverages and pharmaceutical products, especially when sodium is to be avoided (e.g. in low-sodium diets).
    Stable at high temperatures, therefore suitable for cooking and baking.
    Similar to calcium saccharin anhydrous. Used in tablets and food supplements where an easily soluble source of calcium is required.
  • Pictures of the formula:
    • Calciumsaccharin Hydrat; Calcium Saccharin hydrate; [CAS 6381-91-5] Calciumsaccharin Hydrat; Calcium Saccharin hydrate; [CAS 6381-91-5] Calciumsaccharin Hydrat; Calcium Saccharin hydrate; [CAS 6381-91-5]
  • Molecular formula:
    		•        C14H8CaN2O6S2·xH2O (hydrate depending on the amount of water)
  • Molecular weight:
    		•        422.44600 (Monohydrate)
  • Melting point:
    		•        136°C
  • InChI:
    		•        1S/C7H5NO3S.Ca.H2O/c9-7-5-3-1-2-4-6(5)12(10,11)8-7;;/h1-4H,(H,8,9);;1H2
  • InChIKey:
    		•        FJCBEDPGTMUUQL-UHFFFAOYSA-N
  • SMILES:
    		•        O=S1(=O)C=2C(C(=O)N1)=CC=CC2.[Ca].O
  • Canonical SMILES:
    		•        [Ca].O=C1NS(=O)(=O)C=2C=CC=CC12.O
  • HS/CN Code:
    		•        29251100
    At the moment there are no articles available for Calcium saccharin hydrate [CAS 6381-91-5].
 


Applications and usage

    1. Food industry:

    In the food industry, this sweetener is used as a sugar substitute in sugar-free drinks, chewing gum, desserts and snacks. Saccharin is often used in combination with other sweeteners to create a more pleasant taste and to compensate for different negative taste characteristics.

    2. Pharmaceutical industry:

    In the pharmaceutical industry, it is used in medicines as a flavor enhancer or flavor improver, especially in chewable tablets, liquids and vitamins. From a medical point of view, saccharin is also said to have a slight antibiotic effect (based on the sulphonamide unit) on the intestinal flora.

    3. Cosmetics industry:

    Sweetener in the cosmetics industry seems strange at first. But when you consider that dental care products are also part of the cosmetics industry, it makes a lot of sense to use this sweetener in toothpaste and mouthwash as a non-caries-promoting ingredient instead of tooth enamel-damaging sugar.

    4. Private consumers:

    The use of pure saccharin is not recommended for private users, as the concentration as a sweetener is far too high and must be heavily diluted before use for sweetening. For use as a sweetener, private individuals should therefore obtain products that are already prepared and ready for sale.

    5. Chemical trade:

    Due to its worldwide distribution and use, saccharin is also traded accordingly. Many larger retailers have a stock of this sweetener. We only have a limited amount in stock as our primary manufacturer of these products can supply us within a few days.

    6. Pet food industry:

    Sweetening also plays a certain role in animal nutrition – but not exclusively. When used in animal feed (e.g. for piglets), these products serve as flavor enhancers.

    7. Technical industry:

    For technical purposes, saccharin can be used in electroplating by ensuring an even and stress-free distribution of nickel during surface coating. There are also attempts to use saccharin for adhesives.
    •  


    Advantages

    • Calorie-free: · is not metabolized by the body and therefore contributes no calories
    • Stability: · remains stable under extreme conditions such as heat or acid
    • Tooth-friendly: · does not cause tooth decay, making it a preferred choice in products such as toothpaste.
    • Price: Depending on the type (and the current price of sugar), prices are approx. 50 – 100 times higher than for sugar. However, taking the sweetening power into account, this price increase is reversed, as much less of the product is used.
     


    Disadvantages

    • during the diet

      • Some nutritionists reject sweeteners as a substitute for sugar for lower-calorie nutrition in drinks and food, as due to the appetite-promoting effect of most sweeteners it is assumed that additional calories are consumed by other means and could therefore counteract a diet.

    • flavorsome

      • A bitter or metallic aftertaste may occur, especially at higher concentrations.
      To mitigate this disadvantage, saccharin is often mixed with various other sweeteners such as cyclamate, thaumatin or acesulfame.
      In countries where both sweeteners are legal, a mixture of cyclamate and saccharin in a ratio of 10:1 is common. Both substances mask each other’s negative aftertaste.
     


    Safety and health risks

    The safety of saccharin has been controversial in the past. In the 1970s, there were concerns about a possible link between saccharin and cancer. However, extensive studies have shown that saccharin is safe in the usual amounts used in food and beverages. Both the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the USA have classified saccharin as safe.

    There are some controversial opinions regarding possible health risks. Therefore, the German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR) does not want to make a clear statement on whether the consumption of saccharin-containing sweeteners increases the risk of neurodegenerative diseases or affects the intestinal flora to a clinically significant extent. However, it was summarized that no negative effect on the metabolism could be observed in the majority of studies.

    In particular, the discussion regarding a possible carcinogenic effect of saccharin is based on various studies, some of which were carried out under very different conditions.
    Early studies from 1977 were criticized due to the very high doses fed to the rats, which often exceeded the normal consumption of a human by a hundredfold. It was also shown that the biological mechanism that causes cancer in rats cannot be directly transferred to humans due to the different composition of urine.

    Other epidemiological studies have not confirmed a link between saccharin consumption and increased cancer rates (especially bladder cancer). No study has been able to confirm health risks in humans (when consuming normal doses). A meta-study from 2004 classifies a possible cancer risk as insignificant.
    Over 25 years ago, saccharin was classified as “not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans” by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Even more recent findings have not changed this. In many countries, saccharin is approved for sale and consumption without restriction.
    For more information on this topic, see Wikipedia – Saccharin

     


    Further information and research

    • Regulatory status: Saccharin is approved in many countries and has a long history of safe use.
    • Current research: New studies are investigating the possible role of saccharin in weight control and diabetes prevention.
     


    Dosage

    The permitted daily dose of saccharin is 5 mg/kg body weight. The designation as a food additive is “E 954”
    The sweetening power of saccharin compared to sugar is 300 to 700 times (depending on the variant).

    Saccharin remains stable when heated (unlike the newer artificial sweetener aspartame), even in combination with acids. Its stability makes it easy to store. Saccharin does not cause tooth decay. After ingestion, saccharin is mainly absorbed directly and is quickly taken up by the bloodstream. It enters the entire body by binding to plasma proteins and is almost completely excreted in the urine after just one day through renal elimination. Remaining residues are excreted in the stool.

    Like all sweeteners, saccharin has virtually no physiological energy content, is therefore also suitable for diabetics and is therefore used as a sweetener in dietary foods and light products. It may only be used in certain foods with defined maximum levels. Some of these limits are, for example, 200 mg/kg for jams, 160 mg/kg for canned fruit and vegetables and 80 mg/l for energy-reduced drinks.

     


    Where to buy saccharin depending on the application

    Even if it is very obvious on the one hand, but on the other hand it feels a little presumptuous to say it loud and clear, yes – let’s start this section by saying that we have saccharin for sale.
    However, some restrictions should be mentioned instandly:
    1. Delivery time: Only in very rare cases can we deliver immediately. Our storage capacity is very limited and we only have a small quantity of selected products in stock. However, the most important saccharins are usually available within a week.
    2. Quantity: Due to increasing regulations and requirements, we no longer carry out our own refilling or bottling. This means that we only deliver in whole containers (usually 20 – 25 kg, depending on the product). We are also happy to sell individual cartons. We have set ourselves a (non-rigid) limit of 10 tons so as not to overload our storage capacity and to be able to handle a delivery. We have so far refrained from selling complete containers.
    3. Quality: Our primary saccharin products are of very high quality and have excellent documentation. They are primarily intended for the pharmaceutical industry. However, depending on customer requirements, we also use products from other manufacturers with less accompanying documentation.
      For technical purposes, we occasionally have returns due to transport damage that we can sell at a discount. However, these are usually only individual containers.
      Otherwise we can offer you the cheapest goods we can find for you (to the inquiries).
    Saccharin is a widely used sweetener in various industries. Depending on the application, there are various sources where you can buy saccharin:

    1. Food industry:

    • Food ingredients wholesaler: Saccharin is often purchased by companies that produce food and beverages. These companies usually purchase saccharin from specialized food ingredient wholesalers. This would include us (to the inquiries).

    2. Pharmaceutical industry:

    • Pharmaceutical wholesaler: Saccharin is used in the pharmaceutical industry as a sweetener in medicines. It is sourced from pharmaceutical wholesalers or specialized suppliers of pharmaceutical ingredients. This is one of our main areas of focus (to the inquiries).
    • Pharmacy suppliers: Are companies that supply pharmacies with pharmaceutical raw materials often also offer saccharin in small to manageable quantities.

    3. Cosmetics industry:

    • Cosmetic raw material suppliers: Saccharin is used in toothpaste and mouthwashes. Cosmetics companies buy it from suppliers who specialize in raw materials for cosmetic products or from wholesalers, as in points 1 and 2, to which we also belong (to the inquiries).

    4. Private consumers:

    • from pharmacies: Saccharin in small quantities, such as in sweetener tablets, is available in many pharmacies.
    • from supermarkets: Most supermarkets sell saccharin as a sweetener for personal use, in tablet or powder form.

    5. Chemical trade:

    • Chemical suppliers: For industrial or specialized chemical applications, saccharin is sourced through chemical suppliers. For example, we offer various degrees of purity, depending on the application (to the inquiries).

    6. Pet food industry:

    • Pet food additive suppliers: Saccharin is sometimes used as an additive in pet food. Manufacturers source it from specialized pet food suppliers, among others.
    The choice of supplier and source depends on the use and quantities required. For industrial applications, specialized wholesalers (like us) and platforms are the best choice, while pharmacies and supermarkets are sufficient for personal use.

    For those who want to use saccharin industrially (whether for food, the pharmaceutical industry, cosmetics or pet food) and require quantities ranging from individual containers (approx. 25 kg) to several pallets (up to approx. 10 tons in total) and also prefer excellent quality from European production, together with extensive documentation, they have a good chance of finding what they are looking for with us (to the inquiries).

    For customers with somewhat lower requirements, we also offer products from Asian production. Further information can be found under ‘Information about Saccharin Sodium, Dihydrate’.
    Alternatively, you can simply use our general inquiry form and make numerous details about your requirements.
     


    Summary of the individual types:

    Saccharin (in any variant) is a versatile and safe sweetener that is widely used in various industries. Thanks to its unique properties and ability to replace sugar without adding calories, saccharin remains a valuable ingredient in many products.
    • Saccharic acid: Is the pure acid form and poorly soluble in water.
    • Saccharin sodium anhydrous: The sodium salt without water of crystallization is rarely used in practice. This product is rather used to generalize saccharin sodium.
    • Saccharin sodium monohydrate: The sodium salt with one molecule of water of crystallization, highly soluble in water and widely used. However, calculated by our manufacturer at 2/3 molecule.
    • Saccharin sodium dihydrates: The sodium salt with two molecules of water of crystallization, more hydrous, but otherwise similar in use.
    • Saccharin calcium (anhydrous and monohydrate): Are used less frequently, but are nevertheless mainly used when sodium should be avoided.
    • Solubility: Sodium saccharin is most soluble in water, while the calcium forms are less soluble.
    • Molecular weight: Saccharic acid has the lowest molecular weight, while the calcium forms are heavier.
    • Uses: The acid form is only used for special applications as an independent sweetener, but for the production of sodium and calcium salts.
      Sodium saccharin is the most common and best water-soluble sweetener, used in many sugar-free products.
      Calcium saccharin is preferred in products that require low sodium.
    Many well-known customers like to buy this product from us.

    If you have any comments, suggestions or questions, please do not hesitate to contact us.

    This information was obtained from several sources, some of which cannot be specified in detail. A large part comes from our own many years of experience. We have also obtained much of the information from the manufacturers with whom we work. Some information was also gathered through internet research (e.g. von CAS.org – American Chemical Society). This was supplemented by results from AI.
    As this is not a scientific text, but merely abstract information, we have refrained from citing specific sources.
    This information makes no claim to completeness or correctness. It has been compiled to the best of our knowledge and belief. However, errors cannot be ruled out.